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Ecosystem-based management is an environmental management approach that recognizes the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including humans, rather than considering single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation (Christensen et al. 1996, McLeod et al. 2005). Terrestrial ecosystem-based management (often referred to as ecosystem management) came into its own during the conflicts over endangered species protection (particularly the northern spotted owl), land conservation, and water, grazing and timber rights in the western United States in the 1980s and 1990s (Yaffee 1999). Interest in ecosystem-based management in the marine realm has developed more recently, in response to increasing recognition of the declining state of fisheries and ocean ecosystems (POC 2003, USCOP 2004, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). As described in McLeod and Leslie (2009), key elements of marine ecosystem-based management (EBM) include: 1. Connections: At its core, EBM is about acknowledging connections, including the linkages between marine ecosystems and human societies, economies and institutional systems, as well as those among various species within an ecosystem and among ocean places that are linked by the movement of species, materials, and ocean currents. 2. Cumulative impacts: EBM focuses on how individual actions affect the ecosystem services that flow from coupled social-ecological systems in an integrated fashion, rather than considering these impacts in a piecemeal manner. 3. Multiple objectives: EBM focuses on the diverse benefits provided by marine systems, rather than on single ecosystem services. Such benefits or services include vibrant commercial and recreational fisheries, biodiversity conservation, renewable energy from wind or waves, coastal protection, diving, and sea kayaking. 4. Embracing change: Coupled social-ecological systems are constantly changing in ways that cannot be fully predicted or controlled. Understanding the resilience of these systems, i.e., the extent to which they can maintain structure, function, and identity in the face of disturbance, can enable better prediction of how they will respond not only to both natural and anthropogenic perturbations, including changes in environmental management. 5. Learning and adaptation: Because of the lack of control and predictability of coupled social-ecological systems, an adaptive management approach is recommended. Notably, there is no single correct path to ecosystem-based management – on land or in the ocean. The approach will be put into practice in many different places across a range of geographic scales, each with its own unique historical, ecological, and social context. The range of suitable strategies will also vary based on the types of management and governance already in place. See also Ecosystem based fisheries References Christensen, N. L., A. Bartuska, J. H. Brown, S. Carpenter, C. D'Antonio, R. Francis, J. F. Franklin, J. A. MacMahon, R. F. Noss, D. J. Parsons, C. H. Peterson, M. G. Turner, and R. G. Moodmansee. 1996. The report of the Ecological Society of America Committee on the scientific basis for ecosystem management. Ecological Applications. 6:665-691. McLeod, K. L., and H. M. Leslie, editors. 2009. Ecosystem-Based Management for the Oceans. Island Press, Washington, DC. McLeod, K. L., J. Lubchenco, S. R. Palumbi, and A. A. Rosenberg. 2005. Scientific Consensus Statement on Marine Ecosystem-Based Management. Signed by 221 academic scientists and policy experts with relevant expertise and published by the Communication Partnership for Science and the Sea [1] Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends. Island Press, Washington, DC. POC. 2003. America's Living Oceans: Charting a Course for Sea Change. Pew Oceans Commission (POC), Arlington, Virginia. [2] USCOP. 2004. An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century: Final Report of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (USCOP). Washington, DC. [3] Yaffee, S. L. 1999. Three Faces of Ecosystem Management. Conservation Biology 13:713-725. Related Resources Adaptive Management Advancing EBM Toolkit EBM Tools Network Ecosystem Management Initiative Resilience What is marine EBM? This environment-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v • d • e This ecology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v • d • e This oceanography article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v • d • e