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Injection well used for enhanced oil recovery Enhanced Oil Recovery (abbreviated EOR) is a generic term for techniques for increasing the amount of crude oil that can be extracted from an oil field. Using EOR, 30-60 %, or more, of the reservoir's original oil can be extracted[1] compared with 20-40%[2] using primary and secondary recovery. Enhanced oil recovery is also called improved oil recovery or tertiary recovery (as opposed to primary and secondary recovery). Sometimes the term quaternary recovery is used to refer to more advanced, speculative, EOR techniques.[3][4][5][6] Contents 1 How it works 1.1 Gas injection 1.2 Chemical injection 1.3 Microbial injection 1.4 Thermal methods 2 Economic costs and benefits 3 Examples of current EOR projects 4 Potential for EOR in United States 5 Environmental impacts 6 See also 7 References 8 External links // How it works Enhanced oil recovery is achieved by gas injection, chemical injection, microbial injection, or thermal recovery (which includes cyclic steam, steam flooding, and fire flooding).[7][8] Gas injection Gas reinjection is presently the most-commonly used approach to enhanced recovery. In addition to the beneficial effect of the pressure, this method sometimes aids recovery by reducing the viscosity of the crude oil as the gas mixes with it. Gases used include CO2, natural gas or nitrogen. Air cannot be used to repressurize the reservoir because the oil will quickly catch on fire. Oil displacement by carbon dioxide injection relies on the phase behaviour of the mixtures of that gas and the crude, which are strongly dependent on reservoir temperature, pressure and crude oil composition. These mechanisms range from oil swelling and viscosity reduction for injection of immiscible fluids (at low pressures) to completely miscible displacement in high-pressure applications. In these applications, more than half and up to two-thirds of the injected CO2 returns with the produced oil and is usually re-injected into the reservoir to minimize operating costs. The remainder is trapped in the oil reservoir by various means. Chemical injection The injection of various chemicals, usually as dilute solutions, have been used to improve oil recovery. Injection of alkaline or caustic solutions into reservoirs with oil that has organic acids naturally occurring in the oil will result in the production of soap that may lower the interfacial tension enough to increase production. Injection of a dilute solution of a water soluble polymer to increase the viscosity of the injected water can increase the amount of oil recovered in some formations. Dilute solutions of surfactants such as petroleum sulfonates or biosurfactants such as rhamnolipids may be injected to lower the interfacial tension or capillary pressure that impedes oil droplets from moving through a reservoir. Special formulations of oil water and surfactant, microemulsions, can be particularly effective in this. Application of these methods is usually limited by the cost of the chemicals and their adsorption and loss onto the rock of the oil containing formation. In all of these methods the chemicals are injected into several wells and the production occurs in other nearby wells. Microbial injection Microbial injection is part of microbial enhanced oil recovery and is presently rarely used, both because of its higher cost and because the developments in this field are more recent than other techniques. Strains of microbes have been both discovered and developed (using gene mutation) which function either by partially digesting long hydrocarbon molecules, by generating biosurfactants, or by emitting carbon dioxide (which then functions as described in Gas injection above).[9] Three approaches have been used to achieve microbial injection. In the first approach, bacterial cultures mixed with a food source (a carbohydrate such as molasses is commonly used) are injected into the oil field. In the second approach, used since 1985,[10] nutrients are injected into the ground to nurture existing microbial bodies; these nutrients cause the bacteria to increase production of the natural surfactants they normally use to metabolize crude oil underground.[11] After the injected nutrients are consumed, the microbes go into near-shutdown mode, their exteriors become hydrophilic, and they migrate to the oil-water interface area, where they cause oil droplets to form from the larger oil mass, making the droplets more likely to migrate to the wellhead. This approach has been used in oilfields near the Four Corners and in the Beverly Hills Oil Field in Beverly Hills, California. The third approach is used to address the problem of paraffin components of the crude oil, which tend to separate from the crude as it flows to the surface. Since the Earth's surface is considerably cooler than the petroleum deposits (a temperature drop of 13-14 degree F per thousand feet of depth is usual),[12] the paraffin's higher melting point causes it to solidify as it is cooled during the upward flow. Bacteria capable of breaking these paraffin chains into smaller chains (which would then flow more easily) are injected into the wellhead, either near the point of first congealment or in the rock stratum itself.[13] Thermal methods In this approach, various methods are used to heat the crude oil in the formation to reduce its viscosity and/or vaporize part of the oil. Methods include cyclic steam injection, steam drive and in situ combustion. These methods improve the sweep efficiency and the displacement efficiency. Steam injection has been used commercially since the 1960s in California fields.[14] Economic costs and benefits Adding oil recovery methods adds to the cost of oil — in the case of CO2 typically between 0.5-8.0 US$ per tonne of CO2. The increased extraction of oil on the other hand, is an economic benefit with the revenue depending on prevailing oil prices.[15] Onshore EOR has paid in the range of a net 10-16 US$ per tonne of CO2 injected for oil prices of 15-20 US$/barrel. Prevailing prices depend on many factors but can determine the economic suitability of any procedure, with more procedures and more expensive procedures being economically viable at higher prices. Example: With oil prices at around 130 US$/barrel, the economic benefit is about 100 US$ per tonne CO2. Examples of current EOR projects In Canada, a CO2-EOR project has been established by Cenovus Energy at the Weyburn Oil Field in southern Saskatchewan. The project is expected to inject a net 18 million ton CO2 and recover an additional 130 million barrels (21,000,000 m3) of oil, extending the life of the oil field by 25 years.[16] There is a projected 26+ million tonnes (net of production) of CO2 to be stored in Weyburn, plus another 8.5 million tonnes (net of production) stored at Midale, resulting in a net reduction in atmospheric CO2). That's the equivalent of taking nearly 7 million cars off the road for a year.[17] However, the amount of CO2 actually increases when the emissions from the additional produced oil are considered. Since CO2 injection began in late 2000, the EOR project has performed largely as predicted. Currently, some 1600 m3 (10,063 barrels) per day of incremental oil is being produced from the field. Potential for EOR in United States In United States, the Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated that full use of 'next generation' CO2-EOR in United States could generate an additional 240 billion barrels (3.8×1010 m3) of recoverable oil resources. Developing this potential would depend on the availability of commercial CO2 in large volumes, which could be made possible by widespread use of carbon capture and storage. For comparison, the total undeveloped US domestic oil resources still in the ground total more than 1 trillion barrels (1.6×1011 m3), most of it remaining unrecoverable. The DOE estimates that if the EOR potential were to be fully realised, State and local treasuries would gain $280 billion in revenues from future royalties, severance taxes, and state income taxes on oil production, aside from other economic benefits. Environmental impacts Enhanced oil recovery wells typically produce large quantities of brine at the surface. The brine may contain toxic metals and radioactive substances, as well as being very salty. This can be very damaging to drinking water sources and the environment generally if not properly controlled.[18] In the United States, injection well activity is regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state governments under the Safe Drinking Water Act.[19] EPA has issued Underground Injection Control (UIC) regulations in order to protect drinking water sources.[20] The regulations require well operators to reinject the brine deep underground.[18] See also Wikiversity:Enhanced oil recovery Carbon capture and storage Gas reinjection Injection well Steam assisted gravity drainage Steam injection (oil industry) Water injection (oil production) References ^ DOE - Fossil Energy: DOE's Oil Recovery R&D Program ^ http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/electrotech_opps_tr113836.pdf ^ Hobson, Hobson; Eric Neshan Tiratsoo (1975). Introduction to petroleum geology. Scientific Press. ISBN 0901360074, 9780901360076.  ^ Walsh, Mark; Larry W. Lake (2003). A generalized approach to primary hydrocarbon recovery. Elsevier.  ^ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 21st century technologies. 1998. OECD Publishing. pp. 39. ISBN 9264160523, 9789264160521.  ^ Smith, Charles (1966). Mechanics of secondary oil recovery. Reinhold Pub. Corp.  ^ Carcoana, Aurel (1992). Applied Enhanced Oil Recovery. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-044272-0  ^ Baviere, M. (2007). Basic Concepts in Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes. London: Elsevier Applied Science. ISBN 1-85166-617-6  ^ "Tiny Prospectors", Chemical & Engineering News, 87, 6, p. 20 ^ http://www.saione.com/aboutpdl.htm Biography of Philip Lauer ^ www.titanoilrecovery.com Titan Oil Recovery (Beverly Hills CA) webpage ^ http://www.en.allexperts.com/q/Geology-1359/2009/1/temperature-underground.htm#6 Geology Q/A website ^ WMI International, Houston TX 77092; (713) 956-4001 ^ Carcoana, p 11 ^ Austell, J Michael (2005). "CO2 for Enhanced Oil Recovery Needs - Enhanced Fiscal Incentives". Exploration & Production: the Oil & Gas Review -. http://www.touchoilandgas.com/enhanced-recovery-needs-enhanced-a423-1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-28.  ^ http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/2a1.pdf Department of Energy website ^ http://www.ptrc.ca/weyburn_statistics.php ^ a b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "Oil and Gas Related Injection Wells (Class II)." Updated 2010-01-22. ^ EPA. "Basic Information about Injection Wells." Updated 2010-01-22. ^ EPA. "Underground Injection Control Program: Regulations." Updated 2010-01-22. IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage. Chapter 5, Underground geological storage. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2005. US Department of Energy analysis of EOR potential Game Changer Improvements Could Dramatically Increase Domestic Oil Resource Recovery. An analysis by Advanced Resources International, Arlington, VA, for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Fossil Energy. Advanced Resources International, February 2006. See also press release External links US Department of Energy - Information on Enhanced Oil Recovery/CO2 Injection. Enhanced Oil Recovery Institute - University of Wyoming Commercialization Planned for Enhanced Oil Recovery Method - University of Massachusetts, Lowell Licensable Technology: Particle Stabilized Emulsions of Carbon Dioxide & Water for Enhanced Oil Recovery & Extraction Processes - Massachusetts Technology Portal Oilfield Glossary: Enhanced Oil Recovery - Schlumberger, Ltd. v • d • e Petroleum industry Exploration Petroleum engineering (Reservoir simulation • Seismic to simulation) · Petroleum geology · Geophysics · Seismic (Seismic inversion) · Petrophysics · Core sampling Drilling Drilling engineering · Underbalanced drilling · Directional drilling (Measurement • Geosteering) · Drilling fluid · Drill stem test Development Completion (Squeeze job) · Well logging · Pipeline transport · Tracers Production Artificial lift (Pumpjack • Submersible pump (ESP) • Gas lift) · Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) (Steam injection • Gas reinjection) · Water injection · Well intervention · Upstream · Midstream · Downstream · Refining Technical challenges Differential sticking · Drilling fluid invasion · Blowouts · Lost circulation Oil and gas agreements Production sharing agreements · Concessions · Service agreements · Risk agreements Data by country Total energy (consumption per capita • intensity) · Natural gas (consumption • production • reserves • imports • exports) · Petroleum (consumption • production • reserves • imports • exports)  • List of natural gas fields • List of oil fields Supermajors BP · Chevron Corporation · ConocoPhillips · ExxonMobil · Royal Dutch Shell · Total Major NOCs Saudi Aramco · CNPC · NIOC · PDVSA · Petrobras · Petronas Major oil provinces North Sea · East Texas · Persian Gulf · Athabasca oil sands · Gulf of Mexico · Venezuela · Niger Delta · Russia Related articles OPEC · History of petroleum · Peak oil · Oil price increases since 2003 · Price of petroleum · Price of Natural gas · Price of Gasoline and diesel · Society of Petroleum Engineers · Swing producer See also National oil companies